Extended commentary of The Convergence of the Twain by Thomas Hardy Essay Example for Free

Extended commentary of The Convergence of the Twain by Thomas Hardy Essay On the Title: Hardy uses two interesting words: ‘convergence’ and ‘twain’. A convergence is a meeting of two paths, or entities – in this case, a collision! ‘Twain’ is an archaic word for ‘two’, i.e.; both the ‘Titanic’ and the iceberg. Such a title immediately positions the reader to the direction in which the poem will go. Hardy is not, as many elegiac poems of the day were, preparing to mourn the loss of the ship and the lives upon it but rather proceeding to examine the philosophical nature of the collision; perhaps it was fated? The other current use of â€Å"twain† was in the pseudonym â€Å"Mark Twain,† made famous by the publication – initially in England – of â€Å"The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn† in 1886. Clems adopted the nom de plume to suggest â€Å"uncomfortable waters† or â€Å"tight navigation,† since two fathoms (â€Å"twain,† the sounding of a Mississippi deck-hand measuring the depth beneath the keel) would be dangerous for a steamboat. Background Information: The ocean liner ‘RMS Titanic’ famously sank, at two o’clock in the morning, upon the 15th April 1912. The disaster claimed 1,502 lives. Hardy was asked to write a poem to be read at a charity concert to raise funds in aid of the tragedy disaster fund. It was first published as part of the souvenir program for that event. Overall Structure: Hardy writes eleven regular triplet stanzas, with an AAA rhyme scheme throughout. The use of triplets allows for a more thorough exploration of ideas in each stanza; unified by the use of the rhyme scheme. Perhaps he also does this to create the effect of inevitability, for the rhymed words form their own paths coincident that lead to a preset conclusion – the reader knows, that is, with which sound each stanza will end after he or she has only read the first line of that stanza. However, that knowledge only appears are having read the first few stanzas or so, echoing the idea that knowledge of those coincident paths of which the poem speaks is not always immediately discernible. Themes: The Vanity of Man, The Relationship between Man and Nature, Fate, Classical Entities. Difficult Language Notes: â€Å"The Immanent Will† – a force of fate. â€Å"Salamandrine† – associated with the salamander (a mythical creature) The poem runs in straight sets but I wish to divide in two for ease of analysis. ‘Part I’ exists from Stanzas I to VI, whilst ‘Part II’ takes the form of Stanzas VII to XII. Part I Notes: First Stanza Notes: Hardy introduces his poem in medias res – the ship has been sunk and lies silently at the bottom of the ocean. He creates a calm effect over his poem through the consonance of the ‘s’ sounds: â€Å"In a solitude of the sea Deep from human vanity, And the Pride of Life that planned her, stilly couches she.† Particular elements of diction are worthy of note: * â€Å"Deep from human vanity† – this line points to the emerging theme of man’s failed vanity, in creating such a grand object to rule over the natural world, only to have Nature smite it. The phrase â€Å"Pride of Life† accentuates this principle. Note how Hardy uses capital letters to make otherwise simple abstract nouns definitive. Although this is pre-emptive, I will now examine the theme of vaingloriousness (and point out notable pieces of evidence throughout the remainder of the poem) which Hardy presents. He uses irony to evoke the ridiculousness of mans plans. In stanzas I through to V, he juxtaposes images of the ships opulence, such as its mirrors meant / To glass the opulent and the ship’s gilded gear with images of the cold currents, â€Å"sea-worms† and moon-eyed fishes that now flow, crawl and swim through those former interiors. This creates a tangible image of the human vanity referred to in this first stanza; what people design for greatness ultimately ends up in a place of abasement. * â€Å"Stilly† is a highly unusual adverb. Hardy uses it to create a sense of ‘peace’. This is furthered by â€Å"solitude† and â€Å"couches†. ‘Couches’ suggests restfulness, or an equanimity. S.L.S considers an image of a ‘death bed’ upon the sea floor. Second Stanza Notes: Hardy focuses upon images of death and change in this stanza: â€Å"Steel chambers, late the pyres Of her salamandrine fires Cold currents third, and turn to tidal rhythmic lyres.† The furnaces of the ship, which contained the salamandrine fires of her engines (a form of LIFE), now have Cold currents thrid (note the a contrast in temperature – and consequently, a contrast in living state) running through them. ‘Thrid’ itself is another reference to the title, as an archaic word for ‘two’. Where there was once heat and life driving the engines of the ship, there is now coldness and death. A further juxtaposition within this second stanza is the use of the word pyre†, as it connotes funerals and death, while the use of salamandrine insinuates a certain tenacity for life (as salamanders were said to live through fires) that could be associated with the ‘Unsinkable Ship’ idea – there was a theory prior to the sinking, now tragically ironic, that the Titanic was unable to sink. Yet, for all of the tragic (or formerly energetic, given the nature of fire) nature of the ship, Hardy once again returns to ideas of peace and harmony. â€Å"Rhythmic tidal lyres† are reminiscent of the classical entities – such as Apollo’s lyre and his place in Arcadia – and consequently calming images. The distinct iambic meter in this phrase aids the calming lilt of the lines. Hardy presents the Titanic’s corpse in a peaceful light, however chilling and panicked her death. Third and Fourth Stanza Notes: I have above described the idea of vanity. I will pick out key phrases from these stanzas which support this idea – their key point is to achieve the above: * â€Å"mirrors meant to glass the opulent† CONTRASTED TO â€Å"grotesque, slimed, dumb, indifferent† sea worms. Note the cruelty and emphasis on â€Å"indifferent†. * â€Å"Jewels in joy designed† CONTRASTED TO â€Å"lie lightless, all their sparkles bleared and black and blind† Note the use of polysyndeton. * â€Å"gilded gear†. Note alliteration. Fifth and Sixth Stanzas: Thus far Hardy has thoroughly examined the idea of vanity and the sunken ship itself. At stanza VI, Hardy changes his focus to the process by which the ship sank, in reference to Hardy’s ‘question’ formulated in stanza V. V â€Å"Dim moon-eyed fishes near Gaze at the gilded gear And query: ‘What does this vaingloriousness down here? VI Well: while was fashioning This creature of cleaving wing, The Immanent Will that stirs and urges everything† It is obvious that Hardy engineers the explanation of the collision as a response to the â€Å"fishes’† question – although one would initially expect the final line of stanza V to be rhetorical. Before diverging upon the analysis of Hardy’s response, note some key elements of this stanza: * â€Å"moon-eyed† (white and dull) contrasts with the shiny, golden nature of the â€Å"gilded†. This accentuates the differences between the metallic (man-made) ship and the natural world. Also note the alliteration used in this line. Question why? * In an final assault on the vanitas vanitatum, observe that Hardy utilises anthropomorphisation to allow even the fish to question Man’s will in creating such ‘vaingloriousness’ – a Natural force (perhaps a personification of Nature itself?) labels the ship a vanity. What consequence does this have? This query, although appearing rhetorical, is answered by Hardy. Denoted by the use of ‘Well’, he switches to a colloquial register – this again adds to the sense of a Volta at stanza VI. Also note the sudden introduction of prominent enjambment at the end of the poem. The sense of stanza VI rolls into the VIIth, in direct opposition to the previous use of ‘poetic closure’ to end all previous stanzas – Hardy normally uses a form of punctuation. Now it’s gone. Apart from being a ‘change’ in its innate self, the enjambment aids in increasing the pace of the poem. This is highly significant. Seeing as, from this point forth, Hardy creates a ‘convergence of the twain’ within the poem itself – i.e.: he brings the two entities together (I will later explore this process in detail) from obscurity to the point of their collision – then increasing the pace at which the two entities move (which is obviously determined by the pace of the poem) must bring them together faster. This adds to the sense of movement, of fast movement and of dramatic effect. Well done, Mr. Hardy. Note some language details: â€Å"Creature of cleaving wing† is a very interesting phrase. â€Å"Cleaving† has multiple meanings, all of which are appropriate to Hardy’s imagery. Primarily, he may be imagining the ship as it ‘cleaves’ through the water, as all good ships should do. Remember, in its day the Titanic was the fastest liner afloat. â€Å"The cleaving wing† may therefore be the iron bow of the boat. Notice how Hardy is utilising additional anthropomorphisation, in referring to the ship as both a â€Å"creature† and one with â€Å"wing[s]†. The iceberg, however, remains inanimate. I doubt that there are any really deliberate poetic techniques to be synthesized from this but perhaps Hardy encourages a larger empathic response from the animate ship than from the inanimate iceberg? However, we must also acknowledge the metallic â€Å"knife-like† associations with ‘cleaving’ – like ‘cleaver’. This has a highly inanimate connotation. [Another weak point, acknowledged.] There also exists an archaic definition in the verb ‘to cleave’ – as in a Biblical usage – meaning ‘to join in matrimony’. This is of enormous interest. Hardy later plays a great deal upon the idea of the twain being marital (and even sexual) mates. Throughout the poem he refers to them with terms connotating a â€Å"confirmed relationship†. We may be â€Å"reading into† the phrase a little too deeply but it is a comment worthy of note. Perhaps Hardy is using the archaic definition of the verb to further advance his marital imagery? He is certainly no stranger to using such odd vocabulary; observe â€Å"The Darkling Thrush†! Finally, I wish to examine ‘The Immanent Will’. â€Å"Immanent† is not an archaic spelling of â€Å"imminent† – do not get confused in terms of these different words! â€Å"The Immanent Will† is somewhat comparable, in terms of a philosophical idea, to the Christian concept of the â€Å"Holy Spirit† or â€Å"Holy Ghost†. It is a spiritual, but existent, entity within every object which determines its fate or actions. Christianity has branches – notably in Catholicism – which believe in a pre-determined plan, of God’s design. In other words, we are all on a plan set out by God. The Holy Spirit helps us to achieve what God wishes; it provides inner strength and resolve. Hardy did not have an easy relationship with religion; born a Christian, he went through multiple tumultuous periods of atheistic belief. That’s probably why he hasn’t gone and just written; â€Å"God, or some deified entity, has allowed and planned for the demise of this here ship. And that’s why the iceberg, which could have been anywhere in a 3,000 mile radius of the vast Atlantic Ocean, just so happened to strike the ship. Deal with it.† So, instead, he has substituted a strictly non-religious term to his idea of Fate. Indeed, he later refers to the Classical ‘Fate’ entities to again replace any otherwise religious terminology. Remember also that Hardy is not aiming to criticise Christianity in a poem intended to raise money for the victims’ families. Thus, clear religious controversy was not a good idea. Stanzas VIII and IX Notes: â€Å"And as the smart ship grew In stature, grace and hue, In shadowy silent distance grew the iceberg too. Alien they seemed to be: No mortal eye could see The intimate welding of the later history,† Again, Hardy invites further comparison through the use of juxtaposition; he now places the two entities in a relative time scale. The use of the word ‘as’ creates this effect, as it brings almost a simile-esque comparative sense to the stanzas. We must focus on the idea of the twain ‘growing’ – as that is the image which Hardy evokes – and the way in which both are joint in the use of the same verb. The obvious mental image is one of a familial relationship; they grow simultaneously but are fatally unaware of each other. Indeed, the distance between them is made explicitly clear and further emphasized by the alliteration used with â€Å"shadowy† and â€Å"silent†. Observe, in the phrase â€Å"In stature, grace and hue†, Hardy returns to the original theme of the ship’s grandeur. He appears, in this occurrence, to be rather more commending (or perhaps simply more mournful) of the ship and its purpose. Stanza IX further dwells upon the notion of fate. Indeed, Hardy utilises some more imagery worthy of note, full of oxymorons. â€Å"The intimate welding of the later history† It takes little to see that this further advances the ideas of both the twain’s ‘marital intimacy’, of the metal-related imagery associated with the ship, but also, in the final few words, the idea of Fate. If one can know, in the present, the details of the future’s past – in other words, the near future – then surely one is saying in an oddly convoluted way that a certain action is destined to soon take place? It’s an oxymoronic (â€Å"later history† is oxymoronic in my book!) way of saying the same as before; the twain are destined to collide. Stanzas X and XI Notes: â€Å"Or sign that they were bent By paths coincident On being anon twin halves of one august event, Till the Spinner of the Years Said ‘Now!’ And each one hears, And consummation comes, and jars two hemispheres. Very little needs to be said about the action in these stanza. The Twain collide, bringing together the long wait in both metaphorical and poetic terms. Hardy’s precise choice of words and imagery is somewhat more interesting, however. For example: * â€Å"Paths coincident† does not point to a coincidence, as one might initially assume, but rather to a â€Å"co-incident† (i.e. â€Å"together†) act. The Twain are, on reflection, on a course which emulates two graphical lines, in the way that they bisect. Does this then also reflect a sense of Fated entity? Graphical lines do not change, thus their ‘collision’ is determined and sealed. * â€Å"Twin halves of one august event† reminds the reader of the action and precise existence of the collision. In the end, the act was a very physical, not philosophical one. Hardy acknowledges this, but attempts to draw out the unified nature of the Twain, in the intrinsic act of their collision. Note that the usual use of â€Å"august† to mean â€Å"awe inspiring or admiration; majestic† is not intended by Hardy here in a positive way. He merely wishes to express wonder at the grand, if tragic, culmination of two great forces. And yes, it is rather melodramatic. * Hardy at lasts then returns to his Fated theme with the phrase â€Å"The Spinner of the Years†. Reminiscent of the Classical Greek Moirai or the Roman Parcae (three old hags who would run, spin and cut the threads of life), Hardy refers to the middle of the three – the Spinner. Spinning a mortal thread has always occupied a position in mythology. Hardy utilises it to draw out a sense of fate. Fate itself conducts the affair, it seems, given that the Twain act upon the word â€Å"Now!† to converge. * Emerson Brown, scholar of medieval literature, pointed out that the poem is 33 lines long, whilst line 33 echoes the 33-year-old Christ’s last words: â€Å"consummatum est.† In any case, when â€Å"consummation comes†, Thomas Hardy sends 1,500 souls to the bottom with an obscene pun. To â€Å"come† has borne a sexual connotation since the 17th century, at least, while consummation traditionally means the fulfilment of the marriage contract by intercourse. The image of the ‘Titanic’ and the iceberg copulating is hard to take seriously – therefore we must question whether Hardy truly intends it. Nevertheless, it advances the idea of the twain existing in a marital bond. Note the sudden use of speech, in the present tense. Very dramatic. Brings the Twain together in Time for the last time!

Muhammad And The Beginnings Of Islam :: History Historical Islam Islamic muslim

Muhammad And The Beginnings Of Islam Muhammad, whose full name was Abu al-Qasim Muhammad ibn 'Abd Allah ibn 'Abd al-Muttalib ibn Hashim, was born in Mecca around 570 AD after the death of his father, 'Abd Allah. Muhammad was at first under the care of his paternal grandfather, 'Abd al-Muttalib. Because the climate of Mecca was considered to be unhealthful, he was given as an infant to a wet nurse from a nomadic tribe and spent some time in the desert. At six, he lost his mother, Aminah of the clan of Zuhra, and at eight his grandfather. Though his grandfather had been head of the prestigious Hashem clan and was prominent in Mecca politics, he was probably not the leading man in Mecca as some sources suggest. Muhammad came under the care of the new head of the clan, his uncle Abu Talib, and is reputed to have accompanied him on trading journeys to Syria. About 595, on such a journey, he was in charge of the merchandise of a rich woman, Khadijah of the clan of Asad, and so impressed her that she offered marriage. She is said to have been about 40, but she bore Muhammad at least two sons, who died young, and four daughters. The best known daughter was Fatimah, the wife of Muhammad's cousin 'Ali who is regarded as Muhammad's divinely ordained successor by the Shi'ah branch of Islam. Until Khadijah's death in 619, Muhammad took no other wife. The marriage was a turning point in Muhammad's life. By Arab custom, minors did not inherit, and therefore Muhammad had no share in the property of his father or grandfather. However, by his marriage he obtained sufficient capital to engage in mercantile activity on a scale commensurate with his abilities. Muhammad appears to have been of a reflective turn of mind and is said to have adopted the habit of occasionally spending nights in a hill cave near Mecca. The poverty and misfortunes of his early life doubtless made him aware of tensions in Meccan society. Mecca, inhabited by the tribe of Quraysh to which the Hashim clan belonged, was a mercantile center formed around a sanctuary, the Ka’bah, which assured the safety of those who came to trade at the fairs. In the later 6th century there was extensive trade by camel caravan between the Yemen and the Mediterranean region (Gaza and Damascus), bringing goods from India and Ethiopia to the Mediterranean. The great merchants of Mecca had obtained monopoly control of this trade. Mecca was thus prosperous, but most of the wealth was in a few hands.

Operations Management Essay

1. History Since starting out in 1989, the Glad Group has grown to become one of Australia’s leading property service providers. Initially established as Glad Cleaning Services, the company provided cleaning solutions for shopping centres and businesses. In November 2006 Glad Cleaning Services re-branded itself to the Glad Group, now offering integrated property solutions. With a strong focus on customer service and great value pricing, the Glad Group has continued to develop and maintain long-term relationships with its clients over the years. Company founders Nick and Lucy Iloski recognised there was a need to offer an integrated service that specialised in flexible solutions for the retail and commercial markets. Their customer focused approach was welcomed in the market and the company grew rapidly. Today, the Glad Group excels in five key property services: Retail Cleaning, Commercial Cleaning, Security, Maintenance, and Waste Management & Environmental Solutions. Glad offers these services individually, or as an integrated property solution. 2. Introduction 2.1. Customer Service The Glad Group is based on a culture of integrity and dedication. ‘Commitment without compromise’ underpins every operation Glad undertakes. Glad Group takes customer service seriously and aims to deliver enduring value through innovative, customer focused property solutions that provide a safe, clean and friendly environment for clients, their customers and the community. High standards of customer service are obtained through employee training, compliance, and industry innovation and embracing technology. Individuals are empowered through an environment of support and encouragement, making service and solutions quicker and easier for clients. The Glad Group believes trust, integrity, and dependability is essential in every working relationship and always treats clients, employees, contractors and community ethically and with respect. 2.2. Quality Control The Glad Group is accredited to ISO 9001 Quality Management System, AS 4801 Occupational Health and Safety and ISO14001 Environmental Management System. Glad’s comprehensive integrated management system along with the use of Praxeo and Kevah software ensures the staff comply with the current laws, acts, regulations and codes of practice. This has created a safer and more secure work environment, resulting in a progressive reduction in incidents and accidents. 3. Location The Glad Group has been providing property services to the Australian market since 1989. Today the Glad Group is proud to provide services nationally to a range of market sectors including major, regional and neighbourhood shopping centres, commercial buildings, schools and universities, federal, state and local government offices and financial institutions. Glad Commercial Cleaning has several work locations. Investa Property Group, which is one of the clients of Glad Group, owns the office building at Deutsche Bank Place, 126 Phillip Street, Sydney. Located on the prime eastern edge of the CBD, Deutsche Bank Place has commanding and unrestricted views of Sydney Harbour and the Botanical Gardens and it is very convenient for employees to travel to and from. Deutsche Bank Place is a 240 m skyscraper in Sydney, New South Wales, Australia. It is located at 126 Phillip Street in the north-eastern end of the central business district, across the road from Chifley Tower. Construction began in 2002 and was completed in 2005. The building’s architect is Norman Foster of Foster and Partners. Deutsche Bank is the primary tenant, occupying 9 floors and owning the naming rights. It is owned and managed by Investa Property Group. Other major tenants are Allens Arthur, Bain & Company and Seven Wentworth. The 42,256m ² of total net lettable area boasts a NABERS Energy rating of 4.5 stars and a spectacular entry plaza. The building also offers cafà ©s, a brassiere, tenant showers, lockers and bike racks, a child care centre and outdoor areas. Located at the top of Hunter Street in the heart of the CBD, it is readily accessible by car and all public transport options. 3.1. Access It is very important these kind of commercial buildings to be easily accessible because there are lots of employees working in this building assuming 100 people for each level for a building that has 31 commercial levels beside other workers such as cleaners and securities as well as to receive the deliveries inside conveniently and timely. 4. Action Plans 4.1. Sustainability At Glad people believe corporate responsibilities include protecting the environment. That’s why an accredited environmental management system was developed. This system helps identify products or services that could affect the environment. To assist the system several policies, codes of practice, guidelines and International standards were adopted which exceed legislative compliance. All this ensures the best outcome for the environment. Every Glad employee receives training and development in the company’s environmental system. It is very important to continuously develop and tailor site specific training and education packages that focus on recycling and sustainability solutions and procedures. The Glad Group use and offer the following environmentally friendly products and services: ï  ¶Green cleaning products and water wise machines Reusable microfiber cleaning cloths Water recycling products Biodegradable products Waste management (recycling) consultancy Recently, Glad acquired the most powerful portable high pressure steam cleaner in Australia. This new chemical free steam cleaner is a powerful unit that is not only environmentally friendly but also provides: Improved levels of sanitisation Indoor/outdoor applications Graffiti removal Water heated to extremely high temperatures – killing bacteria, mould and viruses in large areas Chemical free portable high pressure steam cleaning for carpets Ideal for pavement/hard surfaces/entries & facades Pollution free operation Uses recycled water system Extraction of waste water (waste water is taken to the site and then removed from the site) 4.1.1. New Steam Clean Technology The Glad Group have mobile chemical free cleaning technology that can come to your site and clean just about anything, from floors and carpets, to car parks and railway platforms. Not only does the system of high pressure (3000 PSI) and steam (260 °C) clean, it also removes the waste and residue instantly via the extraction system (400 ft of hose). Furthermore, not only does the truck bring its own water, it takes the waste water away for recycling. 4.2. Risk and Insurance Management The Glad Group takes hazard assessment and risk management very seriously. Glad’s comprehensive approach ensures clients; their customers and employees are safe from hazards that might cause injury. Glad commission Proclaim to actively investigate and manage public liability claims swiftly and professionally on behalf of the Glad Group and clients. Prior to the commencement of any contract a risk analysis is conducted, site specific safe work method instructions are designed and then audit on an ongoing basis. To further improve safety, Glad also operates a cutting edge software system called Glad Easi. It’s a touch screen reporting program designed to provide an effective and auditable trail of information regarding employees, contractors and visitors within work sites. Due to the comprehensive approach to health & safety and the efficiency of reporting methods, the Glad Group has one of the lowest public liability and workers compensation premiums in the industry. This results in considerable cost savings to clients. 4.3. HR Compliance The Glad Group is accredited to ISO 9001 Quality Management System, AS 4801 Occupational Health and Safety and ISO14001 Environmental Management System. Glad’s comprehensive integrated management system along with the use of Praxeo and Kevah software ensures the staff comply with the current laws, acts, regulations and codes of practice. This has created a safer and more secure work environment, resulting in a progressive reduction in incidents and accidents 4.4. Induction and Training All Glad Group employees are selected through an extensive interview process. Applicants must also provide evidence of their eligibility to work in Australia. Further checks such as, criminality record and immigration (DIMA) are then conducted by the Human Resource Department to ensure eligibility. Prior to issuing all cleaners, security guards and maintenance personnel with photo identification cards, the Glad Group provide detailed induction training at Head Office via Glad Compliance Department. This includes a number of training videos incorporating OH&S endorsed procedures and detailed site instructions. All training is evaluated and recorded on an employee’s electronic training record. Eligible staff is also enrolled in Certificate I, II, III and IV courses in Cleaning and Asset Maintenance. Each of supervisors has a certificate in Asset Maintenance and extensive site experience for commercial and retail sites. 5. Innovation 5.1. G.M.R The Glad Mobile Reporting system is a powerful and flexible software solution used on hand held PDA’s. This software has assisted the Glad Group in the management of property services and the assets and life cycles of our client’s properties. The benefit it provides to clients is real-time on-site inspection reports such as: Quality assurance inspections Incident/accident reporting Damage/condition reporting OH & S audits 5.2. Glad Easi The GLAD EASI system is a touch screen software solution designed to provide an audit trail of vital information for the Glad Group and its clients. The GLAD EASI system captures data such as: Time and attendance Employees entering and exiting the premises with delivery of information at both entry and egress Authorised entry for contractors and safety requirements to be met on entry and egress Safety aspects associated with the sites The system is also used for ongoing training of site personnel via extensive OH&S video series. 5.3. Escalator Machine An innovative widely used easy to move machine to clean hard floor, stairway and escalator is coming soon to be used not only for ease of use but to save time as well.

Olfactory System - Sense of Smell

The olfactory system is responsible for our sense of smell. This sense, also known as olfaction, is one of our five main senses and involves the detection and identification of molecules in the air. Once detected by sensory organs, nerve signals are sent to the brain where the signals are processed. Our sense of smell is closely linked our sense of taste as both rely on the perception of molecules. It is our sense of smell that allows us to detect the flavors in the foods we eat. Olfaction is one of our most powerful senses. Our sense of smell can ignite memories as well as influence our mood and behavior. Olfactory System Structures   Patrick J. Lynch, medical illustrator / Creative Commons / Wikimedia Commons Our sense of smell is a complex process that depends on sensory organs, nerves, and the brain. Structures of the olfactory system include: Nose: opening containing nasal passages that allows outside air to flow into the nasal cavity. Also a component of the respiratory system, it humidifies, filters, and warms the air inside the nose.Nasal cavity: cavity divided by the nasal septum into left and right passages. It is lined with mucosa.Olfactory epithelium: specialized type of epithelial tissue in nasal cavities that contains olfactory nerve cells and receptor nerve cells. These cells send impulses to the olfactory bulb.Cribriform plate: a porous extension of the ethmoid bone, which separates the nasal cavity from the brain. Olfactory nerve fibers extend through the holes in the cribriform to reach the olfactory bulbs.Olfactory nerve: nerve (first cranial nerve) involved in olfaction. Olfactory nerve fibers extend from the mucous membrane, through the cribriform plate, to the olfactory bulbs.Olfactory bulbs: bulb-shaped structures in the forebrain where olfactory nerves end and the olfactory tract begins.Olfactory tract: band of nerve fibers that extend from each olfactory bulb to the olfactory cortex of the brain.Olfactory cortex: area of the cerebral cortex that processes information about odors and receives nerve signals from the olfactory bulbs. Our Sense of Smell Our sense of smell works by the detection of odors. Olfactory epithelium located in the nose contains millions of chemical receptors that detect odors. When we sniff, chemicals in the air are dissolved in mucus. Odor receptor neurons in olfactory epithelium detect these odors and send the signals on to the olfactory bulbs. These signals are then sent along olfactory tracts to the olfactory cortex of the brain through sensory transduction. The olfactory cortex is vital for the processing and perception of odor. It is located in the temporal lobe of the brain, which is involved in organizing sensory input. The olfactory cortex is also a component of the limbic system. This system is involved in the processing of our emotions, survival instincts, and memory formation. The olfactory cortex has connections with other limbic system structures such as the amygdala, hippocampus, and hypothalamus. The amygdala is involved in forming emotional responses (particularly fear responses) and memories, the hippocampus indexes and stores memories, and the hypothalamus regulates emotional responses. It is the limbic system that connects senses, such as odors, to our memories and emotions. Sense of Smell and Emotions The connection between our sense of smell and emotions is unlike that of the other senses because olfactory system nerves connect directly to brain structures of the limbic system. Odors can trigger both positive and negative emotions as aromas are associated with specific memories. Additionally, studies have demonstrated that the emotional expressions of others can influence our olfactory sense. This is due to activity of an area of the brain known as the piriform cortex which is activated prior to odor sensation. The piriform cortex processes visual information and creates an expectation that a particular fragrance will smell pleasant or unpleasant. Therefore, when we see a person with a disgusted facial expression before sensing an odor, there is an expectation that the odor is unpleasant. This expectation influences how we perceive the odor. Odor Pathways Odors are detected through two pathways. The first is the orthonasal pathway which involves odors that are sniffed in through the nose. The second is the retronasal pathway which is a pathway that connects the top of the throat to the nasal cavity. In the orthonasal pathway, odors that enter the nasal passages and are detected by chemical receptors in the nose. The retronasal pathway involves aromas that are contained within the foods we eat. As we chew food, odors are released that travel through the retronasal pathway connecting the throat to the nasal cavity. Once in the nasal cavity, these chemicals are detected by olfactory receptor cells in the nose. Should the retronasal pathway become blocked, the aromas in foods we eat cannot reach odor detecting cells in the nose. As such, the flavors in the food cannot be detected. This often happens when a person has a cold or sinus infection. Smell Disorders Individuals with smell disorders have difficulty detecting or perceiving odors. These difficulties may result from factors such as smoking, aging, upper respiratory infection, head injury, and exposure to chemicals or radiation. Anosmia is a condition defined by the inability to detect odors. Other types of smell defects include parosmia (a distorted perception of odors) and phantosmia (odors are hallucinated.) Hyposmia, the diminished sense of smell, is also linked to the development of neurodegenerative diseases such as Parkinsons and Alzheimers disease. Sources Neuroscience News. â€Å"How the Emotions of Others Influence Our Olfactory Sense.†Ã‚  Neuroscience News, 24 Aug. 2017.Sarafoleanu, C, et al. â€Å"The Importance of the Olfactory Sense in the Human Behavior and Evolution.†Ã‚  Journal of Medicine and Life, Carol Davila University Press, 2009.â€Å"Smell Disorders.†Ã‚  National Institute of Deafness and Other Communication Disorders, U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, 16 Jan. 2018.